The beginnings of chemistry. Alchemy

A technique that deserves the epithet of "chemical" - in the broadest sense of the term - appeared in ancient times:  processing  metal, glass, or - later - speculation Ionians on substances and their transformations. Descriptions and technical prescriptions for this purpose, first transmitted orally and then gathered in a collection written from Babylonian and Egyptian dates. With particular application in pharmacology, such prescriptions were collected by Dioscorides (c. 1 AD) while the number of Pliny find information on various chemicals employed in various techniques.

The term "chemistry" (etymology is disputed) was adopted with the addition of Article al-Arab, designating all such research, that, "alchemy" was - until dry. XVIII - synonymous with "chemistry" just in modern times the term "alchemy" has gained a pejorative attributed to a research area considered - without distinction - that pseudo-science. During the Roman Empire appeared numerous works of alchemy, which is claimed to be due to revelations of divine persons - as Hermes Trismegistus (Greek name of the Egyptian god Thoth). Zosimos be writing a strongly impregnated of mysticism, then, alchemists will be divided into two schools: technicians and mystics.

In the first centuries of our era chemistry was established - as alchemy - as a research discipline with a well defined and well-defined purpose, a fusion of techniques with a certain kind of philosophical speculation. Egyptian craftsmen dealt primarily gilding, silver or color of objects, not the transformation of ordinary metal in precious metal. It seems that convert copper into gold appeared in Syria, where, in sec. I.e.n. III, was sent to Chinese alchemists. Primary material for ancient alchemists was the lead melted, replaced later with mercury. The last component - the current entered and different ideas (Neoplatonism, Gnosticism, magic) - expressing and using a language deliberately obscure, esoteric, intended to keep to initiate secret "recipes", methods and techniques - in fact, chemical - used by these workers and, later, of all those who dedicate themselves to this kind of research. Recourse to magic formulas, the notation of signs, letters, figures, words ambiguous or totally obscure, was a mark of initiation, aiming to provide a variety of prestige these concerns. The starting point of a very abundant literature alchemical documented in such a language it marks the founder of alchemy itself, Greek (originally from Egypt) Bolos of Mendes - sec. IV i.e.n. - Author of a Treatise on the art of painting and other compilations of alchemy - which have been assigned (no theme) of Democritus.

Early alchemists most important - and that alchemy get like a real esoteric religions - were Zosimus of Panopolis (III century AD), the first time using chemeia, and Sinesios, bishop of Ptolemais (370-414), which gives the first description of a hygroscopic. Both were Gnostics, as such, in their work, along with descriptions of laboratory equipment and operations, there are concepts and ideas expressed its gnosticism: the belief in the occult influences and celestial phenomena acting on the world land and quality of visible elements, in putting numbers in a universe can be considered as perfectly represented by numbers and symbols. These ideas, often played in an obscure language when describing even simple laboratory operations, will remain present in works of chemistry until dry. XVII. 23362vxv86zbm3n

Alchemy Workshop

Fundamental ideas and to watch the alchemists was transforming base metals into gold and silver. "This issue is related to the generation >> << metals, from the first four: copper, lead, tin and iron, known as collective tetrasoma. Was also noted that mercury and sulfur also beginning to end when preponderant role, waiting to be raised later to the rank of principles. " (P. Brown). Alchemists were convinced that transform base metals into gold and silver was possible because the Aristotelian conception according to which a substance can be changed into another substance if i changed primary qualities was unanimously accepted. Such a design allowed it to believe that lundu them the specific elements and attributes replacing them - through laboratory operations - with the attributes of gold, could achieve this noble metal. The main problem of the alchemists was to find the elixir, the substance that serves as a catalyst in this operation.

Taken by Arabs in the seventh century, alchemy has made progress both in theory and in practice. Treaties attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyam (according to some authors, a legendary character) claimed that the formation of metal produced primarily exalatiile dry sulfur, mercury and wet conditions, and the metals are formed by successive combination of these two substances. Combining the natural harmony produced gold, other metals, lower impurity resulting from varying degrees of sulfur and mercury, or because of varying proportions of the combination. A practical, Jabir treaties describe various laboratory processes (distillate, crystallization, sublimae, calcination, etc..), Or some practical applications to prepare vinegar, some dyes, etc..

The most important Arab alchemists (after Jabir) that had an influence on the development of Western alchemy was al-Razi and Avicenna. The first gave a systematic classification of chemicals and chemical reactions, and a description of laboratory equipment. Avicenna, who was skeptical about transmutation and did not believe in the possibility of obtaining gold, left a very clear statement of current theories.

In the 1300s appears, in Latin translation, the famous treaty attributed to Jabir, Summa perfectionis, but there are many that adaosuriale of Western alchemists. Opera is the most convincing picture of progress achieved to that date theoretical and practical chemistry. Apparatus and methods described herein are used to get gold, are discussed and rejected arguments to deny the possibility of transmutation, is exposed theory claiming that metals are composed of mercury, sulfur and arsenic, are given guidance on the operation of purification salts, the Alkali metal bodies to obtain the solution for themselves metaleleor mineral extraction. Remarkable is described by distillation to obtain sulfuric acid nitric acid alum and saltpeter and alum, and finally exposed and analysis methods to determine if transformation failed. Interesting is the evidence revealed by the use of balance (showing, for example, that increases its weight by calcination lead).

So, work alchemists, - Arabs or Christians - take two issues separate net. There is practice on the one hand, there were experiences that, by themselves, constitute a positive report of alchemy: the processes of tanning, grinding processes, discover properties of "hardware", the description of chemical operations (processing bodies, grinding, decomposition, mixing , dissolving, melting, distillation and filtration, sublimation, Accredited Certification, roasting, prepare a mixture, etc..) and inventing a whole series of devices, and on the other hand, there is faith in transmutation, a faith based on philosophy, BA even a mystical cosmology.

In the Christian West, alchemy increasing interest is recorded in seconds. XIII, of encyclopedias that carried many informed, in both Arabic and Western sources.

The first theorist of alchemy, a disciple of Grossete is Bartholomaeus Anglicus, whose Free of proprietatibus Rerum (written by 1240) was a work of great success, always consulted in the following centuries, is a summa previous works of alchemy. Another English, Richardus Anglicus, in his Correctorium alchymiae, minerals divided into two classes: metals whose origin is mercury (gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead) and those deriving from sulfur - as alaunii, sulfates (the copper, zinc, iron) and arsenic sulfide, which also had the same origin.

The first known description of the preparation of alcohol appears in a manuscript of the early century. XIII, formulated in brief terms: "Fri clean and very strong mixing three parts of salt and heat it in appropriate containers, to obtain water that burns without consuming flammable material is spilled over."

In sec. XIII, the aqua ardens prepared by distillation containing 60 ° alcohol, by double distillation reached up to about 90 °: aqua vitae, as it was called. In 1320, alcohol is produced in large quantity in Modena, where the process has spread rapidly in France and Germany. Cooling method consists in passing the tube (in sec. XIV, spiral tube) leading from the distillery in container with a bowl of cold water.

The best stills were metal. At the beginning of sec. XV distillers glass vessels appear more suitable for the distillation of other substances, such as mineral acids, which are prepared in large amounts to treat metals. Nitric acid and sulfuric acid is prepared as early as the thirteenth century. Also by distillation (and by solution in alcohol) preparing and "essences" of organic substances for medical purposes.

Improving methods of distillation has great importance for the development of chemistry. R.J. Forbes notes that the Italian alchemists managed since 1150, to distill nitric acid a mixture of saltpeter and alum, as in sec. XIII was obtained by distillation of sulfuric acid secco of alum, as in sec. XV hydrochloric acid is distilled from a mixture of alum and common salt, and that these strong acids have spread rapidly in both West and East, find use as solvents for salts in metallurgy, or mordanati and bleaches in textile industry. Capacitor and spiral twisted and have replaced the flask, the main laboratory instruments, and made possible organic chemistry.

Chemical development was considerably provided new laboratory items, much improved quality of glass and enamel, which gave the opportunity to work with corrosive resistant materials, as strong acids.