Modern Europe

Seventeenth century is of fundamental importance in the history of European thought. For it is when, due mostly Italian Galilei (1564-1642), Frenchman Rene Descartes (1596-1650) and Englishman Isaac Newton (1642-1727), the foundations of modern science, which, in the previous century, Nicolaus Copemic did not was only a timid precursor. Using systematic experimentation and mathematical language, Galileo is the true founder of modern science. In 1589, he performed experiments related to projectile motion, rejecting Aristotle's theory of motion. In 1609, set up astronomical telescope, which allows to make remarkable discoveries, paving the way astronomy based on observation. But the publication in 1632, Dialogue Concerning the Two great systems of the world, defending heliocentrismullui Copernicus, resulting in his conviction the following year, the Roman Inquisition.

Four years after the condemnation of Galileo, is in Paris, in French, from me ¬  Discours pour bien raison conduct verite et chercher to dance les sciences. This work of Descartes founds a real intellectual revolution: idealistic and prelogical thinking, qualitative physics Renaissance people he opposes the great lessons of methodical doubt, the primacy of reason and experience, the necessity of mathematical language.

 Mathematician, physicist, surveyor, Newton is the creator of a new system especially in the world, which, going from Copemic's insights, the discoveries of Galileo and his successors, will replace the system of Aristotle, that observation and cxperimentarea forces us to reject it. In 1687, in his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, he states a simple mathematical law, but of particular importance, the law of universal gravitation. In the eighteenth century, Newton's system overcomes all resistance and will remain, until Einstein, will be included within the subsequent scientific findings.

Simultaneously, the very conditions evolve scientific work. In Galileo's time, scientists are still working, almost always, independently, are, at most, protected by a "patron". Authorities ignore them or affect them in disbelief. Public opinion is not at all interested in their work. From the middle of the eighteenth century, however, kings and princes start to pay attention that improves continuously. In 1662, London is founded under ¬ Jul patron King Charles II, Royal Society, which will play a role in scientific and technical progress in England.

In 1665, Colbert founded the Academie des Sciences Paris newspaper Journal des Savants and patrons, in 1667, it causes the authorities to start building the Centre. In the next century, academies of science patronized by the rulers is growing in Europe, especially in Stockholm, Copenhagen, Berlin (founded in 1700 by Fre ¬ Derici I and reorganized in 1743 by Frederick II), like that of St. Petersburg , founded in 1725 by Peter the Great and became famous by Lomonosov (1711-1765), writer and scholar with universal concerns.

 Science is now considered essential ¬ rate in a state. Kings dispute the scientists and will take ¬ initiated major research projects. Thus, they do not only translate the general feeling. In all European countries, science wins, indeed, little by little, a sector increasingly broader public. In the eighteenth century, that to speak about science in salons became a requirement of good manners. Show remarkable minds of the greatest interest to scientific problems: Voltaire is one that, for 1735, is known in France the works of Newton. There are other proofs of the boundless admiration: the success of the first experiences of electricity, natural reproduction cabinets in castles or houses of bourgeois progress of science teaching in schools.

Supported by the authorities, supported by public interest, the scientist is still limited by a rigorous specialization. Various sciences do not develop to prohibit same researcher to work in several special areas. In the eighteenth century, Descartes, Newton, Leibniz is concerned about the whole science of their time. The absence of specialization, merging of science and prove fruitful dialogue easier. Scientists remain, of course, almost all amateurs. But the invention or improvement of measuring instruments and tools now equip observation without which most of the discoveries would have been made: astronomical telescope, telescope, microscope, barometer, thermometer. Long time, these tools are, without exception, devices with a simple construction and having an affordable price.

However, At the end of the eighteenth century, Lavoisier can not organize a chemistry laboratory, equipped remarkable than the farmer because of his overall wealth. Thus, starting in 1780, progress of science have the inevitable consequence of specialization and, in the case of science, propagation tools becoming more sophisticated and expensive, which changes little by little, the conditions of activity of scientists.

Mathematics is the language of modern science, so that it records the progress they make the development. Over two centuries, great mathematicians are often simultaneously, fundamental discoveries: logarithms (Napier, Kepler), pro ¬ probability calculation (Pascal), analytic geometry (Fenn, Descartes, and Clairaut and Monge), infinitesimal analysis or calculation differential and integral (Fermat and Descartes, Newton and Leibniz, Bernulli brothers, Euler, Lagrange), rational mechanics (D 'Alembert, Lagrange).

Astronomy based on observations made in the eighteenth century, huge pro ¬ fails to account for Galileo, and Kepler and Huygens. But Newton is what really puts modern astronomy bases: the law of universal gravitation allows explaining, inter alia, the elliptical motion of planets, details of movements of the origin of tides, the Earth's shape. Great astronomers of the eighteenth century, the British Halley, French Bouguer, Maupertuis and, especially, Laplace, try to confirm the Newtonian system.

Through his studies on motion, Galileo was one of the first to use mathematical models to try to explain natural phenomena. Pascal, repeating the experiments of Torricelli, demonstrates the existence of vacuum and atmospheric pressure. Improvements to the thermometer by Fahrenheit, Reaumur and Celsius Scotsman allow Black to determine the specific heat of a number of bodies and to establish calorimietriei.

At the same time, important discoveries are made in static electricity, especially by Musschenbroek Franklin, inventor of the first electrical capacitor, called Leyden jar.

Whatever the importance of the work the British Boyle, Priestley or Scheele Swede, the merit of having laid the foundations of modern chemistry, experimental and quantitative returns Frenchman Lavoisier (1743-1794), who first defined from con  cludente experiences, combustion, making, in 1777, air sampling, and, in 1783, water analysis and synthesis.

Natural sciences evolve less quickly. Zoological and botanical classification proposed by the Swedish Linnaeus at least the merit of simplified vocabulary naturalists, but the idea of ​​fixity of species not only very slowly losing ground to the notion of variability and evolution: Frenchman Buffon, especially, opposed the idea of ​​a world created with caution once and for all re-voluţionară concept of a "history" of nature.

In the mastery of healing, it remains hampered by false theories and prejudices, in spite of discoveries in anatomy and physiology, especially the blood flow, highlighted by Harvey since 1628. Therapeutic use the remedies as may be ineffective, the first major victory over a disease - it's about smallpox - is obtained only in 1796, first practiced by the Scottish Jenner vaccination.

Along with the successes scored by the science, we are witnessing a rehabilitation techniques in the minds of the era, which emphasizes the value of "mechanical arts" so despised by some and yet so useful. However, the link between science and technology is still not systematic, as will be starting in the nineteenth century.

Technical breakthroughs in the eighteenth century (last century is quite low in this area) are rather the result of the ingenuity of craftsmen and professionals, faced with one practical problem than the problem that the application for scientific data.

In agriculture, a number of innovations are beginning to spread slowly in Europe, in the second half of the eighteenth century, under the influence of the Dutch, the Flemish and English. The most important is the introduction of forage crops in the production cycle, which allows elimination of areas set aside and livestock development. It also seeks to improve the quality of livestock species, especially the choice of breeds, while the potato is grown ever more on poor land.

But the most important advances and rich track taking place in industry. They are due, all British: inventing new textile machinery (weaving and spinning), replacing wood with coke in the iron melting minerelui and, especially, the development of the steam engine: This is why, by the end century, revolutionary consequences of these innovations have looked almost exclusively England. Continent will experience, in turn, the industrial revolution, with its chain effect, until the nineteenth century.

In general, the importance of the seventeenth century and eighteenth-century European history is significant: it is time they are the foundations on which to build the entire scientific and technical civilization of the nineteenth century. That is especially important because results in acceleration gap between Europe and the world. While progress hitherto same steps, or almost the same in Asia and Europe the latter emphasizes the brutal, in terms of science and technology advance that great maritime discoveries of the fifteenth century had assured economically and politically.